Cytophatic Effect

What is the meaning of cytophatic effect?

Any observable anatomical (morphological) and for physiological alteration in host cell following virus infection.

It’s attributed to the virus inhibiting some aspect of cell metablosim or alternatively stimulating host cell metabolism

What is the use of Cytophatic Effects?

Used is clinical virology laboratory to aid in identification of a virus isolate.

What is the example of Cytophatic Effect

There are  several example of cytophatic effect

-          Swelling / rounding of the infected cell

-          Fusion with adjacent cells to form a syncytia (polykaryotes)

-          Nuclear or cytoplasmic inclusion bodies

-          Shrinking

-          Detachment from surface

-          Altered shape

-          Lysis

-          Altered membrane permeability

-          Apoptosis.

-          Vacuolization, disorientation

One of the example of the cytophatic effect is nuclear or cytoplasmic inclusion bodies. What is your understanding about inclusion bodies?

Inclusion bodies are nuclear or cytoplasmic aggregates of stainable substances, usually proteins. They typically represent sites of viral multiplication in a bacterium or a eukaryotic cell and usually consist of viral capsid proteins.

What is the characterictis of inclusion bodies and give some example

The characterization of inclusion bodies is useful for identification of viruses infections.

Example               - Guarnien bodies – the inclusion in small pox

                                - Negri bodies – inclusions in Rabies.

What are the effects of these inclusion on the host cell?

There can aggregate around host cell organelles and disrupt cellular activity

For example :
        -     REO virus inclusion aggregate around spindle fibers which can disrupt mitosis in anaphase

-          Arena virus inclusion aggregate around host cell ribosomoes which can distrupt translation

-          Herpes Aggregate around chromatin which can distrupt replication and transcription.

What is syncytia?

a large cell-like structure filled with cytoplasm containing many nuclei.

What is the example of  syncytia.

The example of syncytia is measles virus, mumps virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and Para influenza

Cytophatic Effect

What is the meaning of cytophatic effect?

Any observable anatomical (morphological) and for physiological alteration in host cell following virus infection.

It’s attributed to the virus inhibiting some aspect of cell metablosim or alternatively stimulating host cell metabolism

What is the use of Cytophatic Effects?

Used is clinical virology laboratory to aid in identification of a virus isolate.

What is the example of Cytophatic Effect

There are  several example of cytophatic effect

-          Swelling / rounding of the infected cell

-          Fusion with adjacent cells to form a syncytia (polykaryotes)

-          Nuclear or cytoplasmic inclusion bodies

-          Shrinking

-          Detachment from surface

-          Altered shape

-          Lysis

-          Altered membrane permeability

-          Apoptosis.

-          Vacuolization, disorientation

One of the example of the cytophatic effect is nuclear or cytoplasmic inclusion bodies. What is your understanding about inclusion bodies?

Inclusion bodies are nuclear or cytoplasmic aggregates of stainable substances, usually proteins. They typically represent sites of viral multiplication in a bacterium or a eukaryotic cell and usually consist of viral capsid proteins.

What is the characterictis of inclusion bodies and give some example

The characterization of inclusion bodies is useful for identification of viruses infections.

Example               - Guarnien bodies – the inclusion in small pox

                                - Negri bodies – inclusions in Rabies.

What are the effects of these inclusion on the host cell?

There can aggregate around host cell organelles and disrupt cellular activity

For example :
        -     REO virus inclusion aggregate around spindle fibers which can disrupt mitosis in anaphase

-          Arena virus inclusion aggregate around host cell ribosomoes which can distrupt translation

-          Herpes Aggregate around chromatin which can distrupt replication and transcription.

What is syncytia?

a large cell-like structure filled with cytoplasm containing many nuclei.

What is the example of  syncytia.

The example of syncytia is measles virus, mumps virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and Para influenza

Comparison of Lymphoctes involved in the Immune response.

TEST 1 MIC 206 6^th August 2008 (Revision Question)

By:                   Khairul Anwar Bin Abu Mansor

                        Faculty Of Applied Science; Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia

1.       Define these terms :-

a.       Teleomorph

The sexual stage in the life cycle of a fungus that has both sexual and asexual states

b.      Mycelium

Mass of hyphae constituting the body (thallus) of a fungus.

c.       Negative staining

d.      Condiophore

A simple or branched hypha arising from a somatic hypha and bearing at its tip or side one or more conidiogenous cells; previously used interchangeably with conidiogenous cell.

e.      Saprophytic fungi

f.        Woronin bodies

An electron-dense, spherical body found in the hyphae of Ascomycota and many Deutromycetes; Woronin bodies are usually concentrated near septa.

2.       List one (1) difference and one (1) smillarity between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Penicillium italicum.

3.       List two (2) differences between the two divisions Eumycota ( True Fungi ) and Myxomycota ( Slime Moulds )

4.       List two (2) basic features of Chytridiomycetes and name one (1) Chytridiomycete

5.       State one (1) special feature of a zygomycete

It’s produce zygospore

6.       Describe with the aid of diagram the asexual reproduction of the Zygomycete, Rhizopus stolonifera (Hint! Besides the descriptions, relevant diagram with labels will also be given marks)

7.       Write short notes on the condition called histoplasmosis

8.       Name one (1) Deutromycete that is a plant pathogen and one (1) that is an animal pathogen (Note which is which)

9.       Describe the economic importance of Aspergillus

Aspergillus is able to utilize enormous varieties of substances for food as they produce a large number of enzymes.

10.   State one (1) difference between moulds and yeasts

MIC 206 – Fungi and Other Organisms Questions

By :               Khairul Anwar Bin Abu Mansor

                        Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia

1.       Different between Parasitism and mutualism

2.       Defination of Facultative Symbionts, Obligate Symbionts, Biotrophic Association, Necrotrophic Association

3.       How do fungi infect plant:

Through : Aerial surface, Root surface, wounds, internal tissues (endodermis, phloem, xylem)

4.       Fungi (relating to features) that help in the infection process

5.       Necrotrophic

6.       Biotrophic Attack

7.       How plants control fungal attack?

-          Biological control

-          Breeding disease resistance plant

-          Integrated control

8.       Fungi and animals
-  Fungi that attack animals

-    Fungi that line as mutual symbionts

-    Fungi as food to animals

9.       Mycoparasitism

* The Aswer will be update later

TEST 1 CHM 256 REVISION QUESTION

By : Khairul Anwar Bin Abu Mansor

QUESTION 1

a)      Analytical chemistry concerned with the chemical characterization of matter and provide the information on “what” and “how much”?. Distinguish between qualtitative analysis and quantitative analysis with reference to one (1) selected sample of your choice.

b)      Give three (3) examples of science disciplines where analytical chemistry is being applied

1.       In medicine

2.       In industry

3.       Environmental quality

4.       The nutritional value of food.

c)       List the seven (7) steps commonly employed in an analytical chemistry

1.       Define the problem

2.       Select a method

3.       Obtain a Representative sample

4.       Prepare the sample for analysis

5.       Perform any necessary chemical separations

6.       Perform the measurement

7.       Calculate the results and report.

QUESTION 2

a)       i)    We can’t analyse the whole sample, so what should we do?

Preparing the sample of for the analysis. By measure the amount of the sample to be analyzes. It’s used to calculate the percent composition from the amount of analyte found. The analytical sample size must be measured to the degree of precision and accuracy required for the analysis.

ii)    Describe the sampling procedure for a heterogonous soil sample

The sample dried by applied some heat on it. Then we, dissolve inorganic solids. After that we destruction of organic materials for inorganic analysis for burning or acid oxidation.

iii)  What are the three (3) factors that may cause contamination or alteration of the sample?

-          container

-          atmosphere

-          light

b)      i)     What is a reagent-grade chemicals?

Chemicals conform to the minimum standards set forth by the Reagent Chemical Committee of the American Chemical Society (ACS) and are used wherever possible in analytical work. Some suppliers label their products with the maximum limits of impurity by the ACS specification; other print actual concentrations for the various impurities.

ii)    Name any three (3) types of grade for chemical reagents

1.       Technical or commercial C.P (Chemically pure)

2.       U.S.P

3.       A.C.S. reagent

4.       Primary standard

iii)   Give five (5) rules of handling chemical reagents.

1.       Select the best grade of chemical available for analytical work. Whenever possible, pick the smallest bottle that will supply the desired quantity.

2.       Replace the top of every container immediately after removal of the reagent; do not rely on someone else to do this.

3.       Hold the stoppers of reagent bottles between your fingers; never set a stopper on a desk top.

4.       Unless specifically directed otherwise, never turn any excess reagent to a bottle. The money saved by returning excesses is seldom worth the risk of contaminating the entire bottle.

5.       Never insert spatulas, spoons, or knives into a bottle that contains a solid chemical. Instead, shake the capped bottle vigorously or tap it gently against a wooden table to break up an encrustation; then pour out the desired quantity.

6.       Keep the reagent shelf and the laboratory balance clean and neat. Clean up any spills immediately, even though someone else is waiting to use the same chemical or reagents

7.       Observe local regulations concerning the disposal of surplus ragents and solutions.

c)       i)     What is a standard solution?

        Solution in which the concentration of a solute is known with high reliability

ii)    Why is sodium hydroxide is not a primary standard?

        Its not stable in water concentration

iii)   Calculate the volume required to prepare 100mL of HCl solution. Given that pHCl = 1.19g/ml, %(w/w)= 37^oC

QUESTION 3

a)      i)     Name the three (3) glassware for accurate measurement

        Burette, Pipette and measuring cylinder

ii)    If you need to dilute a stock standard solution accurately, which type of pipette would you use?

        The volumetric pipette

b)      i)     What is the temperature of the oven recommended to dry sample materials?

        105^oC to 110^oC for 1 or 2 hours

ii)    What is the normal temperature of the muffle furnace for dry ashing?

        400^OC to 700^OC

iii)   Give the commonly acid used for dissolving inorganic solid sample.

        Hydrochloric acid

c)       The following set of chloride analyses on separate aliquots of pooled serum were reported: 103, 106, 108, 109 and 114 meq/L. One value appears suspect.

i)                    Determine if it can be an outlier or otherwise, at the 95% confidence level.

ii)                   Calculate the confidence limit at 95% confidence level.

iii)                 If a true value is 107 meq/L, what is the relative error in parts per thousand?

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

By : Khairul Anwar Bin Abu Mansor

       Faculty of Applied Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia

AN OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

1.       Lymphocytes respond to the presence of

-          Invading pathogens (bacteria and fungus)

-          Abnormal body cells, (virus infected cells or cancel cells)

-          Foreign proteins (such as the toxins released by some bacteria.

2.       The barrier are specific defenses known as immune response.

ORGANIZATION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system consists of the following

1.       A network of lymphatic vessels – a.k.a lymphatics, which begin in peripheral tissues and end at connections to veins.

2.       Lymph – a fluid that resembles plasma but contains a much lower concentration of suspended protein

3.       Lymphoid organs – which are connected to lymphatic vessels and contain large number of lymphocytes.

FUNCTIONS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The primary functions of the lymphatic system

1.       The production, maintenance, and distributions of lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are produced and stored with in

-          Lymphoid tissues and organs, such as the spleen and thymus

-          Areas of red bone marrow.

2.       The return of fluid and solutes from peripheral tissues to the blood. Capillaries normally deliver more fluid to the tissues than they carry away.  The return of tissues fluids through the lymphatic vassels maintains normal blood volume and elimates local variations in the composition of the interstitial fluid.

3.       The distribution of hormones, nutrients and waste products from their tissues of origin to the general circulation. Substance that originate in the tissues but are for some reason unable to enter the bloodstream directly may do so by way of the lymphatic vessels.

LYMPHATIC VESSELS

Lymphatic vessels carry lymph from peripheral tissues to the venous system. The smallest lymphatic vessels are called lymphatic capillaries.

LYMPHOCYTES.

1.       Lymphocytes account for 20-30 percent of the circulating white blood cell population.

2.       The body contains some 10¹² lymphocytes with a combined weight of over a kilogram.

Types of lymphocytes.

1.       3 classes of lymphocytes are in blood

i.         T-Cells (thymus cells

ii.       B-Cells (Bone marrow derived)

iii.      NK Cells (natural killer)

2.       Each type has distinctive biochemical and functional characteristics T-Cells.

3.       T Cells - 80% of circulating lymphocytes are classified as T cells. Many types of T cells exist, including the following

i.         Cytotoxic T cells – attack the foreign cells orbody cells infected by viruses. Their attack commonly involves direct contact. These lymphocytes are the primary cells involved in the production of cell-mediated immunity or cellular immunity

ii.       Helper T cells – which stimulate the activation and function of both T cells and B cells.

iii.      Suppressor T cells – inhibits the activation and function both T cells and B cells.

4.       B Cells account for 10-15% of circulating lymphocytes. When stimulate, B cells can differentiate into plasma cells. Plasma cells are responsible for the production and secretion of antibodies, soluble proteins that are also known as immunoglobulin. These proteins bind to specific chemical targets called antigens.  Most antigens are pathogens, parts or products of pathiogens, or other foreign compounds. Most antigens are proteins, but some lipids, polysaccharides and n.acids can also stimulate antibody productions. B cells are responsible or antibody-mediated immunity, which is also known as humoral immunity because antibodies occur in body fluid.

5.       NK Cells – Remaining 5 – 10% of circulating lymphocytes. a.k.a large granular lymphocytes. It’s attack foreign cells, normal cells infected with viruses, and cancer cells that appear in normal tissues.

* To Be continued

Titration

By :               Khairul Anwar Bin Abu Mansor

                        Faculty Of Applied Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia

Definition

A method of volumetric analysis in which a volume of one reagent (the titrant) is added to a known volume of another reagent slowly form a burette until an end point is reached. The volume added before the end is reached is noted. If one of is reached. If one of the solution has a known concentration, that of other can be calculated.

Process

Titration  os the process of the analyte react with a measured volume reagent of known concentration.

General Tips for accurate and precise titrating

1.       Make sure the stopcock is secured tightly enough to prevent leakage.

2.       Check the tips for air bubbles. Work air bubbles out by rapid opening and closing of the stopcock to squirt the titrant through the tip or taping the tips while the solution is following. No bubbles should be in the barrel of burette.

3.       Initial reading taken by allowing it to drain slowly to the zero mark. The burette read to nearest 0.2ml. The initial reading may be 0.00ml or greater. It’s best taken by placing the finger just in back of the meniscus or by using a meniscus illuminator. Making the reading at eye level.

4.       Put the sample solution in an Erlenmeyer flask.  The flask placed on a white background and the burette tips is positioned within the neck of the flask.

5.       The flask is swirled with the right hand while the stopcock is manipulated with left hand. This grip on the burette maintains a slight inward pressure on the stopcock to ensure that leakage will not occur. More efficiently stirred by means of a magnetic stirrer and stirring bar.

6.       There will be a permanent changes in the colour at the end point when the fraction of a drop is added.

7.       Performed the titration in triplicate

8.       After a titration is complete, unused titrant should never be returned to the original bottle but should be discarded.

The Requirement

1.       In titration the test substance (analyte) in a flask reacts with a reagent added from a burette as a solution of known concentration.

2.       Titrant is known as a standard solution. The volume of titrant required to just completely react with the analyte and the reagent, we can calculate the amount of analyte.

3.       The requirement of a titration are :

-          Reaction must be stoichiometric – There must be a well defined and known reaction between the analyte and the titrant. Example : Titration of acetic acid in vinegar with sodium hydroxide:

                                HC₂H₃O₂  +  NaOH  à NaC₂H₃O₂  +  H₂O

-          Reaction should be rapid.

-          No side reactions, and the reaction should be specific. If there are interfering substances, these must be removed.

-          There should be a marked change in some property of the solution when the reaction is complete.  This may be change in colour of the solution or in some electrical or other physical property of the solution. A colour change is usually brought about by addition of indicator.

-          The point at which an equivalent or stoichiometric amount of titrant is added is called the equivalence point. The point at which the reaction is observed to be complete is called the end point. The end point should coincide with the equivalence point or be at a reproducible interval from it.

-          The reaction should be quantitative. The equilibrium of the reaction should be far to the right so that a sufficiently sharp change will occur at the end point to obtain the desired accuracy.

The General classification of volumetric or tirimetric method

1.       Acid-Base. Many compounds, both inorganic or organic, are either acids or bases and can be titrated with a standard solution of a strong base or a strong acid.  The end points of these titrations are easy to detect.

2.       Precipitation.  In the case of precipitation, the titrant forms an insoluble product with the analyte. Example : Titration of chloride ion with silver nitrate solution to form silver chloride precipitate. Again, indicators can be used to detect the end point, or the potential of the solution can be monitored electrically

3.       Complexometric. In complexometric titrations, the titrant is a reagent that forms a water-soluble complex with the analyte, a metal ions. The titrant is often a chelating agent. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is one of the most useful chelating agents used for titration. It will react with a large number of elements, and reactions can be controlled by adjustment of the pH.

4.       Reduction-Oxidation. Involve the titration of an oxidizing agent with a reducing agent, or vice versa. An oxidizing agent gains electrons and a reducing agent loses electrons in a reaction between them.

Standardization and titration calculations – they are the reverse of one another.

When a titrant material of high or known purity is not available, the concentration of the approximately prepared titrant solution must be accurately determined by standardization; that is by titrating an accurately weighed quantity ( a known number of milimoles) of a primary standard. From the volume of titrant used to titrate the primary standard.

Taking the analyte A in Equation of aA x tT à P

                                Mmol_standard        = 

                                Mmol_titrant            = M_titrant[mmol/mL] x ml_titrant

                                                                = mmol_standard x t/a [mmol_titrant / mmol_standard]

                Mmol_titrant [mmol/ml]     =

Titration Curve

1.       By contracting a titration curve, we can easily explain how the end points of these titrations can be detected; the end point signals the completion of the reaction. A titrations can be detected; the end point signals the completion of the reaction.

2.        A titration curve is a constructed by plotting the pH of the solution as a function of titrant added. The titrant is always a strong acid or a strong base. The analyte may be either a strong base or acid or a weak base or acid.

3.       In the case of a strong acid versus a strong base, both the titrant and the analyte are completely ionized. Example; the titration of HCL and NaOH.

Source

1.        Gary D. Christian (2003) Analytical Chemistry 6^th Edition p: 11, 37, 158, 160, 165, 266

Sections.

1.       Differentiate between parasitism and mutualism

2.       Defination of Facultative symbionts, Obligate symbionts, Biotrophic  Asssciation, Necrotrophic Association

3.       How do fungi infect plants. Through : Aerial surfaces, root surfaces, wounds, internal tisues (endodermis, phloem, xylem)

4.       Fungi (relating to features) that help in the infection process.

-          Airbone pathogenic fungi

-          Root infected by fungi

5.       Necrotrophic attack

6.       Biotrophic attack

-          VAM

-          Orchidaeceous Mycorrhiza

-          Ericaceous Mycorrhiza

-          Ectomycorrhiza

-          Endophytes

7.       How plant control fungal attack

-          Biological control

-          Breeding disease resistant plants

-          Integrated control

8.       Fungi and Animal

-          Fungi that attack animals.

-          Fungi that line as mutual symbionts

-          Fungi as food to animals.

9.       Mycoparasitism

UNIVERISITI TEKNOLOGI MARA MALAYSIA

A FUNGI THAT ACT AS DECOMPOSERS

BY

Khairul Anwar Bin Abu Mansor

Student no 2006 60 6761

Diploma Microbiology, Faculty of Applied Science

Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia, Shah Alam

INTRODUCTION

The decomposition of organic matter is brought about by wide range of fungi and other organisms such as bacteria, nematodes, mites, springtails, etc acting in consort. The types of organism that are active in these communities can vary, but the overall course of decomposition is similar in many situations because it involves an overlapping sequence of activities of fungi with different patterns of behavior and different abilitiy to degrade particular types of substrate.

The table below shows the main behavioral grouping of decomposer fungi.

CHYTRIDS : PHYLUM CHYTRODIOMYCOTA

This phylum is the powerdul decomposers. The studied, shows that most of the thousand or so species of chytrids are saprophytes. Chytrids are microscopic and widespread, occurring in soil, bogs, fresh and marine water, and even inside plants and animals.

They are single-celled or form short chains of cells and some produce a limited hyphal mycelium buried in the substrate. The hyphae lack sepra, and are termed ceonocytic. Chytrids are considered to be the earliest line of evolution because they have retained some primitive features, such as motile zoospores similar to protists.

The special feature of chytrids is they produce the amino acid lysine by the aminoadipic acid pathway, have flat mitochondrial cristae (in aerobic species) and contain chitin microfibrils in their cell walls.

Chytridiomycota have unicellular or mycelial thalli. Cell walls are made of chitin, although one group has walls made of cellulose. Cell growth can be unicellular, or it can occur in the multicellular mycelium of aseptate hyphae. The thallus is typcially unicellular; it may also have limited hyphal growth. It is not considered mycelial. Hyphal cells are coenocytic, although this is not the case where there are reproductive structures. The ultrastructure of the zoospore is a definitve characteristic of Chytridiomycota. In the structure, ribosomes are aggregated around a nucule that is not enclosed in a nuclear cap. A nuclear cap is an extension of the nuclear membrane. Chytridiomycota have one or two flagella. .

Chytrid zoospores have a single, smooth, posterior flagellum. A second basal body, without a flagellum, is located near the functional basal body. Although hyphae are coenocytic, a septum forms to delineate the sporangium. In species where sexual reproduction has been described, “+” and “-“ strains of haploid, uniflagellate gametes are released and fuse to form the diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis as it germinates to release haploid zoospores, often after a long dormancy.

The example of the species of chytrodiomycota is Allomyces macrogynus

THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE CHYTRIDIOMYCETE

Figure 1 : The life cycle of Chytridiomycete

Asexually, Chytridiomycota reproduce through the use of zoospores. In asexual reproduction, zoospores will swim until a desireable substrate is located. The zoospore attaches itself, feeds off its host; the cytoplasm grows, meiotic divisions occur, and a cell wall forms around the original zoospore. Protoplasm increases as the cell continues to develop.

Finally, cleavage of the protoplasm occurs, which produces individual zoospores that are released through a pore. Sexual reproduction is haploid dominant. It also depends on the isomorphic alternation of generations. The haploid thallus, called the gametothallus, produces female and male gametes. These occur in pairs and are terminal and subterminal. Male gametes are orange-colored, while female gametes are colorless. In addition, female gametes are much larger than male gametes. Males are attracted to females when they produce the hormone sirenin, and females are attracted to males when they produce the hormone parisin.

The diploid thallus is called the sporothallus. The sporothallus produces two types of zoosporgia: zoosporgangium (meitosporangium) and resistant sporangium (meiosporangium). Zoosporangia produce diploid zoospores, which can function as a means of asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous, or oogamous. One species, Allomyces macrogynus, has a sporic life cycle, something that occurs in plants but is rare to fungi. A. macrogynus is an example of an anisogamous species.

CONCLUSION

Most of the species of the fungi can be act as a decomposers. Its will change from the complex structure to the simplest structure. For example from the carbohydrate to carbon.

REFERENCES

1.       Jim Deacon (2006)  Fungal Biology, Blackwell Publishing  P:413-437.

2.       Campbell and Reece (2002) Biology 6^th Edition, Pearson Education P: 616-630

3.       I Knox, R. Bruce. (2005) Biology 3^rd Edition, MacGraw Hill Australia P: 893-915 

THE BALTIMIORE CLASSIFICATION

The group of classification of virus.

Immune system is the one that very important in for our body. Without immune system, we always feel sick everytimes. Because we always expose to surrounding area that have lots of microorganisms such as bicteria and viruses.

So, why why study immunology?

Immunology is the study of how the immune system or the body defense system protects the body defense system protect the body from invading foreign substances and provide the body with immunity

The function of the immunity is to defence the individual against the foreign substances expecially the harmfull microorganisms  or their product. Thus the immune system will give us protection or immunity. It’s also function to protect the body to some tumors and rejection of transplant.

The action of immune system is:

-          Preventing microorganisms from entering the body

-          Removing if they (microorganisms) manage to get in.

-          Destroy if they (microorganism) manage to cause disease.

The mechanisms involving recognition and disposal foreign susbstances from enter the body (complex)

they is two body defense system.

-          Non-specific also known as innate immunity

-          Specific immune system also name adaptive immune system.

1.       Glycolysis is a sequence of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions – glucose à pyruvate

2.       The conversion of one molecule of glucose to two molecyles of pyruvate is accompanied by the net version of 2 molecules of ADP to 2 molecules of ATP and the production of 2 mol of NADH

3.       The enzymes found in all living species and are located in the cytosol.

4.       The glycolytic pathway is active in all differentiated cell types in multicellular organisms.

5.       The net reaction of glycoloysis is:
Glucose + 2 ADP + 2NAD⁺ + 2P à 2 Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H⁺ + 2H₂0

6.       The reactions of glycolysis can be divided into 2 stages : The hexose stage and triose stage.

7.       In the hexose stages – 2 molecules of ATP are converted to ADP.

8.       In triose stage, 4 molecules of ATP are formed from ADP for each molecule of glucose metabolized.

9.       Therefore, glycolysis create two molecules of ATP.

The ten Enzyme-Catalyzed Step of Glycolysis

The fate of pyruvate

1.       Further metabolism of pyruvate typically takes one of four routes.

                     i.            Acetyl CoA – by the action of pyruvate dehydrogenase. Can be used in variety of metabolic pathway. For example; completely oxidized to CO₂ in the citric acid cycle (Kreb cycle).

                   ii.            Carboxylated to produced oxaloacetate. Oxaloacetate is one of the citric acid cycle intermediates, but it is also an intermediate in the synthesis of glucose.

                  iii.            Reduced to ethanol, excreted from cells. The reaction takes place under anaerobic conditions where entry of acetyl CoA into the citric acid cycle is unfavourable

                 iv.            Reduced to lactate. Lactate can be transported to cells that convert it back to pyruvate for entry into one of the other pathway. This is aloes an anaerobic pathway.

Heterotroph – is an organism that requires organic substrates to get its carbon for growth and development. Its kown as a consumer in the chain.

Autotorphs – use inorganic carbon dioxide or bicarbonate as sole carbon source.

All animals are heterotrophic, as well as fungi and many bacteria.

Heterotophs are unable to synthesize organiz carbon-based compounds independenly from the inorganic environment’s sources and therefore must obtain their nutrition from another heterotrophy or an autotroph.

Heterotroph – obtains its carbon form organic compounds

Autotroph – obtains nitrogen from organic compounds, but not energy.

There 2 possible subtypes of the heterotrophs

-          Photoheterotrophs – obtains energy from light and must obtain carbin in an organic form.

-          Chemoheterotroph – obtains energy from the consumption of organic molecules and and organic form of carbon

Genetics : The science of biological information.

The foundation for understanding genetics.

There is a great range of variation between organisms but offspring tend to resemble their parents, that is, they appear to inherit certain characteristics, or traits, from them.

A monk, Gregor Mendel, studied the inheritance of a range of traits in different strains of peas grown in his garden at the Augystinian monastery in Brunn, Moravia.

Mendel experiments

1.       Cross breading different varieties of pea plants.

2.       Pea plants are  because they,

-          Self pollinated

-          Cross artificially

-          Produce large number of progeny

3.       For artificial crossing

-          The young anthers of a flower are removed before their pollen is released

-          Pollen from different plant can then be brushed on the stigma to fertilise the eggs in the ovules.

4.       Plant breeders had used self-pollination, or inbreeding, to generate varieties that were pure-breeding – varieties in which all progeny had the same set of characteristics as their parents.

5.       Different pure-breeding varieties inhibited different characteristics. Mendel succeded in gaining an understanding of hereditt where others had failed because he used pure-breeding varieties that were genetically homogeneous.

Monohybrid cross.

1.       When pure-breeding variety that produced yellow seeds and a pure-breeding strain that produced green seeds were cross-pollinated, the progeny seeds were always yellow.  This occurs irrespective of which strain was used as the source of the pollen or the egg.

2.       The progeny of a cross btwn two pure-breeding strains are referred to as the F1 progeny (the first filial generation). In this example, the F1 progeny all exhibited the yellow characteristics.

3.       Then, Mendel planted the yellow F1 progeny seeds and allowed the resulting plants to self-pollinate, resulting in the F2 progeny ( the 2^nd filial generation). At this time, some green seed reappeared. Mendel counted 6022 yellow; 2001 green and the ration is 3:1

4.       Mendel explained his result by proposing that

                                            I.            Yellow colour in seeds is determined by a factor, which he termed Y, and green colour by a factor he termed y

                                          II.            The yellow seed trait is dominant and the green seed trait is recessive.

                                        III.            Pea plants carry two of these factors, which may be the same ( YY or yy ) or different ( Yy ).

                                        IV.            Pea plants pass only one of these two factors on to their pollen or egg cells (gametes) from each other in the production of the sperm and egg cells).

                                          V.            Each gamete receives one or other of these factor with equal probability.

5.       The factor genes, which influence particular characteristic. In this case seed colour.

6.       Different form of gene are termed allelic genes or alleles.

7.       Term genotype is used to describe the particular combination of alleles of an organism.

8.       Phenotype is used to describe the observable characteristics. Example: yellow and green seed.

9.       Note that : because certain phenotypes can be dominant (e.g. yellow) and others recessive (e.g. green), plants with different genotypes can have the same phenotype; in this example, YY and Yy plants both have yellow seeds.

10.   A cross tt involves different allele of a single gene is termed a monohybrid cross. Example of such a cross would be Yy x Yy.

11.   Individual carrying to copies of the same allele is said to be homozygous. E.g. YY. It will produce gametes carrying only one type of allele (in this case Y). In a cross between pure-breeding plants from the same strain (e.g genotype YY, and phenotype yellow), the progeny can only receive a Y allele from each parent and must therefore also have the same genotype (YY) and phenotype (yellow seeds) as its parents, accounting for the pure-breeding nature of the strain.

12.   Individual carrying different alleles are said to be heterozygous (Yy). All of the F1 progeny of the pure-breeding yellow plants (genotype YY) crossed to pure breeding green plants (yy) must be heterozygous (genotype Yy, phenotype yellow) as they received different alleles from each parent. If these heterozygous F1 plants are self-pollinated (Yy x Yy), they will produce both yellow and green offspring in the ratio 3:1.

13.   From the result in the F2: the genotype ratio is 1:2:1  = YY:Yy:yy and for the phenotype ratio is 3:1.

14.   Mendel demonstrated that these principle applied equally to the inheritance of six other traited of pea plants

                                                        I.            Seed shape

                                                      II.            Flower colour

                                                    III.            Pod shape

                                                    IV.            Pod colour

                                                      V.            Flower and pod position

                                                    VI.            Stem length

15.   Mendel’s first conclusion is referred to as the Principle of Segregation

Individual carry pair of genes, termed alleles, that influence particular inherited traits. The alleles segregate during the formation of gamates such that any individual gamete contains only one of each pair of alleles.

Assalamualaikum wbt,

izinkan saya di pagi jumaat, ini saya berasa ada suatu topik yang perlu dibincangkan mengenai apa yang dikatakan sebagai meniru di peperiksaan atau exam.

Sejauh mana mereka boleh pergi dengan kehidupan mereka yang meniru dalam exam nie..
Sejauh mana pula hukuman yang dikeluarkan oleh pihak universiti dapat membanteras kes meniru di kalangan pelajar.
sejauh mana pula penguatkuasaan yang dijalankan oleh pihak universiti untuk membentras pelajar meniru. Ada pengawas peperiksaan mengambil berat mengenai kes meniru dan ada juga pengawas peperiksaan yang hanya pandang sebelah mata sahaja. Bukan dua mata...
Orang yang meniru ini, bagaimana pula dengan aspek keberkatan dalam hidup? masa hadapan anda hendak diletakkan ke mana.
Bila dapat keputusan yang baik ( tapi, tak la baik sangat, memang orang yang meniru ini tak dapat dekan pun. cuma lulus jer ), sejauh mana kebangaan diri yang mereka akan rasa bila mengatakan aku dapat B.. tapi dalam hari aku meniru... berbanding dengan orang yang mendapat B tapi, inilah hasil usaha aku selama ini.
Bangsa mana yang selalu dikaitkan dengan meniru ini, tapi, saya yakin.. semua bangsa meniru.. tidak perlu disalahkan kepada satu bangsa sahaja.


Di atas ini adalah satu persoalan dari pandangan peribadi saya mengenai "peniru tegar" ini.

Pelbagai teknik dan tektik diguanakan untuk orang yang meniru ini untuk meniru, ada yang pergi ke tandas (itu sudah macam generasi.. tetapi, ingat bukan semua orang yang ketandas itu meniru ada yang tak sempat melabur kerana bangun lewat ataupun silap makan), dizaman moden ini juga ada yang menggunakan talifon bimbit (ini..zaman sekarang punya cara.. tapi, memang susah la kalau orang itu menggunakan Nokia 3310 dan yang seumpama dengannya) atau membawa nota ke dalam dewan peperiksaan ( ini sudah cukup BERANI).

Setahu saya, UiTM Malaysia sebagai contoh mengenakan hukuman yang berat kepada mahasiswa dan mahasiswi yang meniru dalam peperiksaan. Mereka akan dikanakan hukuman gantung selama satu semester atau gugur taraf sebagai seorang pelajar atau gagal dalam mata pelajaran tersebut (ini paling ringan) atau gagal kesemua subjek yang diambil pada satu semester (sia..sia.. sahaja anda berjalan menaiki dan menuruni anak tangga selama 4 bulan).

Hukuman ini adalah untuk pelajar yang aktiviti meniru dia diketahui pengawas peperiksaan. tapi, bagaimana pula dengan orang yang meniru semua subject tetapi, aktiviti kotor mereka ini tidak diketahui oleh pengawas peperiksaan. Lazimnya, satu hari nnt ALLAH yang memberikan pembalasan, samaada di dunia ataupun di akhirat kelak.

Kenapa mereka terdesak sehinggakan sanggup meniru dalam peperiksaan??

bagi saya, terdapat pelbagai faktor mereka melalukan perkara sedemikian,

1. tidak cukup bersedia untuk menghadapi peperiksaan, masa yang sepatutnya cukup digunakan untuk studi itu digunakan untuk tidur, hayal, berborak, mengumpat, main game, pergi dating dan bermacam-macam lagi la aktiviti yang bukan untuk study.
2. desakan keluarga? sejauh mana desakan keluarga ini mempengaruhi seseorang mahasiswa/i untuk meniru dalam peperiksaan? ibu bapa kadang-kadang mahu anaknya cemerlang. Walaupun persediaan telah dibuat dengan rapi, tetapi, disebabakan kurang keyakinan apabila tiba saat-saat akhir untuk menduduki peperiksaan seseorang mahasiswa/i itu juga sanggup melakuakan sedemikian
3. desakan kawan? ini anda sudah maklum... desakan kawan bagi saya termasukklah desakan "girlfriends" atau "boyfriends" maklumla.. kadang-kadang seseorang yang sudah ada teman yang sentiasa bersama ini hendak result peperiksaan yang samarata. tetapi, sebenarnya diluar kemampuan.
4. desakan result yang lepas. CGPA bagi result yang lepas rendah. perangai untuk semester berikutnya tetap sama tetapi, berazam untuk mendapat keputusan yang cemerlang.

Cukup, bagi saya sebahagian dari faktor penting kenapa seseorang mahasiswa/i itu sanggup meniru dalam exam. kalau nak di pandang semula semuanya adalah daripada satu perkataan iaitu "DESAK" tidak kira la "TERDESAK" ke.. "DESAKAN".

Tetapi, ingat la.. wahai sahabat.. keberkatan daripada ALLAH swt. itu lebih penting, anda tidak perlu meniru.. mungkin kalau anda meniru.. balasannya kembali ketangan anda. ALLAH swt itu MAHA ADIL lagi MAHA BIJAKSANA.

sekian wassalam

KHAIRUL ANWAR BIN ABU MANSOR @ k.a0616 (khairulanwar@live.com)s/k: http://khanwar.blogspot.com, http://khairulanwar5105.space.live.com, http://hairulguessboys.blogs.friendster.com, anakledang & siswagpms.